Multivalent metal-ion, sulfur, and selenium batteries for energy and healthcare applications: Current status, challenges, and future outlook

Abstract

Battery technologies have revolutionized modern life, powering portable electronics, electric vehicles, and medical innovations. Among next-generation options, multivalent batteries have garnered growing interest due to their high volumetric capacity, material abundance, and potential for low cost. This review focuses on three representative systems: multivalent metal-ion, metal-sulfur, and metal-selenium batteries. We summarize their working principles and recent advances addressing persistent challenges such as sluggish ion diffusion, structural degradation, and electrolyte incompatibility. Particular emphasis is placed on electrode design and electrolyte engineering strategies that enhance performance and durability. Beyond technical aspects, we discuss potential applications in grid-scale energy storage and biomedical devices, highlighting the advantages of high energy density, tunable form factors, and intrinsic safety. By mapping current research directions and identifying critical knowledge gaps, this review provides a comprehensive overview and forward-looking perspective on multivalent battery technologies, offering guidance for the development of sustainable, high-performance energy storage systems for industrial and healthcare applications.